Russia’s invasion of Ukraine four years ago initiated Europe’s largest conflict since World War II, causing profound civilian suffering, devastating military losses, and a fundamental shift in post-Cold War security dynamics.

The conflict entered its fifth year on Tuesday, with no resolution in sight.

Military casualties have reached staggering levels. A recent report by the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) estimates that Russia has had approximately 1.2 million casualties, including up to 325,000 soldier deaths between February 2022 and December 2025 – the highest number of military deaths for any major power in a single conflict since World War II.

Russia has not reported battlefield deaths since January 2023, when it confirmed losing more than 80 soldiers in a Ukrainian attack, bringing Moscow’s officially acknowledged military deaths to slightly above 6,000.

For Ukraine, CSIS estimates military casualties between 500,000 and 600,000, including up to 140,000 deaths. President Volodymyr Zelenskyy recently stated that 55,000 Ukrainian soldiers have died, with many more listed as missing. Neither side releases reliable or timely casualty figures, and independent verification remains unattainable.

The United Nations Human Rights Monitoring Mission has confirmed more than 15,000 civilian deaths in Ukraine since the invasion began, noting this is likely an underestimate. In excess of 40,600 civilians have been injured during this period.

At least 763 children have died in the conflict, according to UN data.

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The year 2025 was the deadliest for Ukrainian civilians since 2022, with 2,514 deaths and 12,142 injuries – a 31 percent increase in civilian casualties compared with 2024.

Approximately 5.3 million Ukrainians have sought refuge in Europe, while another 3.7 million remain internally displaced within Ukraine. The country’s pre-war population exceeded 40 million.

The physical destruction is catastrophic. Cities such as Bakhmut, Toretsk, and Vovchansk have been reduced to rubble. The World Health Organization has documented more than 2,800 attacks on healthcare facilities since 2022, while Russian strikes on energy infrastructure have left millions without heat and power.

About one-fifth of Ukraine’s territory is contaminated with mines or unexploded ordnance. According to the World Bank, the reconstruction costs for Ukraine are projected to reach $588bn over the next decade.