Tense relationships between Venezuela and the United States have been exacerbated after reports of possible US military action in the Latin American nation.

On Monday, the US designated Venezuela’s “Cartel de los Soles”, meaning Cartel of the Suns in Spanish, a foreign “terrorist” organisation, which it claims is led by President Nicolas Maduro. Washington has not provided any proof for its claims. Cartel de los Soles is actually a term Venezuelans use to refer to officials engaged in corruption, and is not an organised cartel.

Several airlines have cancelled flights to Venezuela following a warning from the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) about a “potentially hazardous situation” in Venezuelan airspace.

The advisory came after months of military build-up in the Caribbean Sea as part of what the US said were efforts to counter narcotics. Meanwhile, the top US military officer, Dan Caine, has been visiting the Caribbean region.

Last month, US President Donald Trump said he had authorised the CIA spy agency to carry out secret operations in Venezuela, bringing into the spotlight the history of US intervention in Latin America.

A strike on Venezuelan territory would constitute a serious escalation of the months-long US operation in the region, which has seen more than 80 people killed in a series of strikes on boats for allegedly trafficking drugs.

Maduro has denounced the US actions. On Monday, the Venezuelan government dubbed the “terrorist” designation of the alleged drug cartel as a “ridiculous lie” aimed at justifying “an illegitimate and illegal intervention against Venezuela”.

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Since Trump returned to the White House in January 2025, he has escalated attacks on Venezuela, reversing his predecessor Joe Biden’s policy of engaging with Maduro.

But the roots of distrust and tension between Washington and Caracas go back a quarter of a century, following left-wing former President Hugo Chavez’s ascension to power in 1999. Maduro took over as president following Chavez’s death in 2013.

Here is a timeline of the deteriorating relations between Venezuela and the US since Trump started his second term, and how Washington’s approach towards the South American nation has led to this moment.

• January 10, 2025 – Maduro is sworn in for a third term after disputed elections. The US rejects the outcome, reiterating allegations of election fraud.
• January 2025 – Trump returns to power in the US and revokes the temporary protected status (TPS) that had shielded about 600,000 Venezuelans living in the US from deportation.
• February 20, 2025: The Trump administration designates Venezuela’s Tren de Aragua gang as a “foreign terrorist organisation”. Trump would go on to claim that Tren de Aragua is a front for Maduro, even though US intelligence agencies have themselves said they have no evidence of any link between the group and the Venezuelan leadership.
• February 21, 2025 – Caracas agrees on coordinating with Washington over Trump’s mass deportation push; the first batch of migrants reaches Venezuela.
• February 26, 2025 – Trump nixes Venezuelan oil concessions granted by Biden.
• March 24, 2025 – Trump imposes 25 percent tariffs on countries buying oil from Venezuela.
• August 8, 2025 – US doubles reward for arrest of Maduro to $50m, designating him the “global terrorist leader” of the Cartel de los Soles.
• September-November 2025 – Washington launches a maritime “anti-narcotics” campaign in the Caribbean and Pacific on September 2. At least 21 attacks on alleged “drug boats” have since killed more than 83 people.
• October 15, 2025 – Trump confirmed that he has authorised the CIA to carry out secret operations in Venezuela.
• October 28, 2025 – Venezuela suspends a gas accord with Trinidad and Tobago over a visit by a US warship.
• November 12, 2025 – Venezuela launches nationwide military drills.
• November 14, 2025 – The US announces “Southern Spear” mission as forces deploy near South America.
• November 14-16, 2025 – The US deploys the world’s largest aircraft carrier, USS Gerald R Ford, other warships, thousands of troops, and F-35 stealth jets to the Caribbean.
• November 22, 2025 – The FAA issues a Notice to Air Missions (NOTAM), warning airlines of hazards in Venezuelan airspace due to “heightened military activity”, including GPS interference. Airlines suspend flights to Venezuela.

Before the rise of socialist President Chavez, Caracas and Washington largely maintained close economic ties. US companies invested in the oil sector in the early 20th century, and, by the 1920s, the US became the biggest market for Venezuela’s oil exports.

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But Chavez’s nationalisation of the oil industry and vocal stance against US imperial interests in Latin America soured the ties. In 2007, Chavez pushed out US oil giants ExxonMobil and ConocoPhillips as part of his efforts to make the state oil company gain a majority stake in all new oil projects. Chevron, another US oil major, however, continues to operate.

Here’s a snapshot of Venezuela-US ties over the past 25 years:

1999 – Chavez takes office

Campaigning on an anti-establishment, anti-US platform, Hugo Chavez is elected president and launches the so-called Bolivarian Revolution. His early moves to rewrite the constitution and later to nationalise the oil sector set Venezuela and the US on a collision course.

2000s – Escalation and hostility

US-Venezuela ties deteriorate as Chavez strengthens ties with Russia, China and Iran.

Venezuela expels US-backed NGOs and diplomats, and accuses Washington of destabilisation efforts. The US criticises Venezuela over “authoritarianism” and restrictions on the media.

Domestically, Chavez’s government expands social programmes, funded by high oil prices, but economic mismanagement and corruption begin to undermine growth.

2002 – The coup attempt

A short-lived coup removes Chavez for 48 hours. Venezuela accuses the US of supporting the plot – a charge Washington denies. This event lays the foundation for two decades of distrust.

2013 – Maduro’s rise

Following the death of Chavez, Maduro — his longtime deputy — narrowly wins the presidency in elections. His tenure is immediately marked by economic decline, corruption scandals and worsening relations with the US.

2014-15 – First major US sanctions

Amid growing protests and allegations of human rights abuses, the US imposes visa restrictions and sanctions on Venezuelan officials.

This is a turning point: Sanctions exacerbate the economic crisis, and Venezuela begins to experience severe shortages of food and medicine. Inflation skyrockets, and migration out of the country surges.

2017-19 – Economic crisis

​​The US blocks Venezuela’s access to its financial markets and bans the purchase of Venezuelan debt. Sanctions on oil imports intensify as Venezuela’s economy collapses under hyperinflation and years of mismanagement. In 2019, inflation peaks at 345 percent. In April 2025, it stands at 172 percent.

2018 – Maduro’s disputed re-election

Maduro’s controversial 2018 re-election leads to a political crisis. Key opposition candidates are barred from running, prompting a boycott of the elections by most of the opposition.

Opposition figure Juan Guaido declares himself interim president, winning recognition from the US and dozens of allies. Washington expands sweeping sanctions on Venezuela’s oil, gold, mining and banking sectors.

2024 – A rerun of the 2018 election

Six years later, Maduro again won a disputed election against independent opposition candidate Edmundo Gonzalez. The opposition showed vote tallies from several booths that appeared to suggest a comfortable win for Gonzales, disputing the result announced by election authorities in Maduro’s favour. The United Nations criticised the conduct of the election.

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The then-US Secretary of State Antony Blinken said there was “overwhelming evidence” that Gonzalez had won. Several left-wing Latin American governments, including Brazil, Mexico, Chile and Colombia, also questioned the official results and called for a recount.